Children’s Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Reactivity During Sadness-Eliciting Tasks: A Meta-Analytic Review

Abstract

Different from other negative emotions, sadness is associated with a slowing of the heart rate, and not its increase, suggesting greater parasympathetic influence that may help children achieve relief and restoration. The current meta-analysis aimed at analyzing respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reactivity during sadness-eliciting tasks. An inverse relationship between RSA reactivity, emotion regulation, and perceived sadness intensity, as well as a direct relationship between RSA reactivity and internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, were hypothesized. Twenty-two studies met the inclusion criteria, producing 6 independent effect sizes for emotion regulation, 7 for sadness intensity, 15 for internalizing problems, and 13 for externalizing problems. In total, the studies reviewed data on 2,876 individuals. Considering all studies, effect sizes were calculated on the basis of a comparison between the clinical and non-clinical samples. In the non-clinical sample, the mean effect size for emotion regulation was significant but small, and the mean effect size for externalizing problems was not significant. In contrast, in the clinical sample, the mean effect size for externalizing problems was significant but small. The effect sizes for internalizing problems and sadness intensity were not significant, though they were consistent with the predicted directions. Aside from the analysis of internalizing problems in the clinical sample, all analyses were homogeneous, confirming the consistency of the results. No publication bias was found. The paucity of studies on this topic highlights the need for further research on children’s reactions to sadness through the lens of polyvagal theory.